Atomic properties
Market data
Raw material sources & pricing
| Raw Material Form | Grade/Quality | Price Paid by Refiners | Major Sources | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Xenotime Concentrate | 30-60% Y₂O₃ | $180-250/kg REO | China, Malaysia, Australia | Primary HREE source, YPO₄ mineral |
| Ion-Adsorption Clay | 0.5-8% Y₂O₃ | $45-85/kg REO | Southern China (Jiangxi, Guangdong) | Easier extraction, lower grades |
| Monazite (By-product) | 2-3% Y₂O₃ | $20-40/kg REO | India, Brazil, Australia | Primarily for Ce/La, Y is by-product |
| Bastnaesite (By-product) | 0.1% Y₂O₃ | $10-20/kg REO | China (Bayan Obo), USA | Very low Y content, mainly LREE |
Xenotime - Primary Raw Material
Current Market Price: $180-250/kg REO (varies by grade and purity) Major Global Reserves: China: 220,000 MT of yttrium oxide - Largest reserves globally United States: 120,000 MT - Second largest reserves Australia: 82,000 MT - High-grade xenotime deposits India: 74,000 MT - Monazite sands and xenotime Brazil: 52,000 MT - Placer deposits 2025 Production Leaders: China: 6,800 MT Y₂O₃ (97% of global production) India: 120 MT Y₂O₃ Malaysia: 60 MT Y₂O₃ Brazil: 40 MT Y₂O₃ Raw Material Form Grade/Quality Price Paid by Refiners Major Sources Notes Xenotime Concentrate 30-60% Y₂O₃ $180-250/kg REO China, Malaysia, Australia Primary HREE source, YPO₄ mineral Ion-Adsorption Clay 0.5-8% Y₂O₃ $45-85/kg REO Southern China (Jiangxi, Guangdong) Easier extraction, lower grades Monazite (By-product) 2-3% Y₂
⚠️ Seawater Yttrium Extraction
Commercial Viability: NOT ECONOMICALLY VIABLE Concentration: 0.0003 ppm (extremely low) Chemical Form: Y³⁺ hydrated ions and hydroxide complexes Status: No commercial seawater yttrium extraction exists. The concentration is over 6,600 times lower than aluminum in seawater, making extraction completely uneconomical. Note: While some elements like magnesium and bromine are extracted from seawater, yttrium's extremely low concentration makes this impossible.
Production cost analysis
| Cost Component | $/kg Yttrium Metal | % of Total Cost | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| Raw Material (Xenotime/Clay) | $8-12 | 30-35% | Varies by ore type and grade |
| Chemical Processing | $6-9 | 25-30% | Acid leaching, solvent extraction |
| Energy | $3-5 | 12-15% | Lower than aluminum smelting |
| Labor | $2-3 | 8-10% | Highly automated processes |
| Environmental/Waste Management | $3-4 | 10-12% | Radioactive thorium management |
| Other Costs & Overhead | $2-3 | 8-10% | Equipment, maintenance |
| Total Production Cost | $24-36 | 100% | Compare to selling price: $26-29/kg |
Energy consumption breakdown
| Process Stage | Energy Consumption | % of Total Energy | Energy Type | Key Operations |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Ore Processing & Crushing | 5-8 MJ/kg | 10-15% | Electricity | Mechanical crushing, grinding |
| Acid Leaching | 12-15 MJ/kg | 25-30% | Thermal (Steam) | H₂SO₄ digestion at 60-90°C |
| Solvent Extraction | 8-10 MJ/kg | 15-20% | Electricity + Thermal | Multi-stage separation |
| Precipitation & Calcination | 10-12 MJ/kg | 20-25% | Natural Gas | Oxalate → oxide at 750°C |
| Metal Reduction | 10-15 MJ/kg | 20-25% | Electricity | Ca or Mg reduction at 1500°C |
Acid Leaching Process Details
Sulfuric Acid Method: 60-90°C, 2-4 hours Alkali Decomposition: 140-200°C, high pressure Ion-Exchange: Selective Y³⁺ adsorption Efficiency: 85-95% Y recovery Waste Stream: Thorium/uranium separation required
Metal Production Methods
Calcium Reduction: YF₃ + 3Ca → Y + 3CaF₂ Operating Temp: 1500-1600°C in argon Purity Achieved: 99.9-99.99% Yield: 90-95% Alternative: Electrolysis of YCl₃ in molten salts
Commercial forms & specifications
| Product Form | Chemical Formula | Molecular Weight | Typical Purity | Price Range (USD/kg) | Main Applications |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Yttrium Metal | Y | 88.91 g/mol | 99.9-99.99% | $26-29 | Alloys, superconductors |
| Yttrium Oxide | Y₂O₃ | 225.81 g/mol | 99.99-99.999% | $2.60-3.00 | Phosphors, ceramics, glass |
| Yttrium Chloride Hexahydrate | YCl₃·6H₂O | 303.36 g/mol | 99.9-99.99% | $45-65 | Chemical synthesis, catalysts |
| Yttrium Nitrate Hexahydrate | Y(NO₃)₃·6H₂O | 383.01 g/mol | 99.9-99.999% | $50-80 | Ceramics, optical materials |
| Yttrium Fluoride | YF₃ | 145.90 g/mol | 99.99% | $120-180 | Optical coatings, metallurgy |
| Yttrium Acetate | Y(CH₃COO)₃·4H₂O | 338.08 g/mol | 99.9% | $85-120 | Catalysts, glass additives |
| Yttrium Carbonate | Y₂(CO₃)₃·3H₂O | 411.88 g/mol | 99.9% | $35-50 | Ceramics, catalysts |
| Yttrium Sulfate | Y₂(SO₄)₃·8H₂O | 610.12 g/mol | 99.9% | $40-60 | Analytical reagent |
| Yttrium Aluminum Garnet (YAG) | Y₃Al₅O₁₂ | 593.62 g/mol | 99.99% | $800-1500 | Laser crystals, jewelry |
| Yttrium Iron Garnet (YIG) | Y₃Fe₅O₁₂ | 737.93 g/mol | 99.9% | $600-900 | Microwave filters, magnetics |
| Yttrium Barium Copper Oxide | YBa₂Cu₃O₇ | 666.19 g/mol | 99.9% | $250-400 | High-temp superconductors |
| Yttrium Oxalate | Y₂(C₂O₄)₃·10H₂O | 634.04 g/mol | 99.9% | $65-95 | Y₂O₃ precursor |
Suppliers by country
🇨🇳 China
| Company | Product Forms | Specialties |
|---|---|---|
| China Minmetals Rare Earth Co. | Y₂O₃, metal, compounds, phosphors | World's largest producer, ion-adsorption clay processing |
| China Northern Rare Earth Group | Y₂O₃, mixed REE products | Bayan Obo mine operations, integrated processing |
| Ganzhou Rare Earth Group | High-purity Y₂O₃, compounds | Ion-adsorption clay specialist, 99.999% purity |
🇦🇺 Australia
| Company | Product Forms | Specialties |
|---|---|---|
| Lynas Corporation | Mixed REE concentrate, Y-rich products | Mt Weld mine, Malaysian processing plant |
| Alkane Resources Ltd | Heavy REE concentrate, Y products | Dubbo Project, zirconium-REE co-production |
| Northern Minerals | Xenotime concentrate, HREE/Y products | Browns Range heavy REE project |
🇯🇵 Japan
| Company | Product Forms | Specialties |
|---|---|---|
| Nippon Yttrium Co. Ltd | High-purity Y₂O₃, compounds, metal | Ultra-high purity products, phosphor-grade materials |
| The Nilaco Corporation | Y metal, compounds, alloys | Research-grade materials, custom synthesis |
🇺🇸 United States
| Company | Product Forms | Specialties |
|---|---|---|
| MP Materials | REE concentrate (low Y content) | Mountain Pass mine restart, primarily LREE |
| American Elements | High-purity Y compounds, metal | Advanced materials, custom compounds |
| Lorad Chemical Corporation | Y₂O₃, compounds | Specialty chemicals, phosphor materials |
🇮🇳 India
| Company | Product Forms | Specialties |
|---|---|---|
| Indian Rare Earths Ltd | Mixed REE chlorides, Y products | Monazite processing, thorium management |
| Kerala Minerals & Metals Ltd | REE concentrates, Y-bearing products | Beach sand minerals, integrated processing |
🇧🇷 Brazil
| Company | Product Forms | Specialties |
|---|---|---|
| CBMM (Companhia Brasileira de Metalurgia e Mineração) | REE concentrates, Y by-products | Niobium primary, REE/Y secondary products |
Market demand by product form
| Product Form | Global Market Size | China Share | Rest of World | Growth Rate (CAGR) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Yttrium Oxide (Y₂O₃) | $45 million | 65% production, 40% consumption | 35% production, 60% consumption | 4.5% |
| Phosphor Applications | $28 million | 45% share | 55% share | 6.2% |
| Ceramics & Glass | $18 million | 55% share | 45% share | 5.8% |
| Metal & Alloys | $12 million | 50% share | 50% share | 4.2% |
| Electronic Applications | $15 million | 35% share | 65% share | 7.5% |
| Catalysts | $8 million | 40% share | 60% share | 5.0% |
| Medical (Y-90) | $6 million | 20% share | 80% share | 8.5% |
| Other Applications | $7.5 million | 45% share | 55% share | 4.0% |
Market trends
Supply Concentration Risk: China controls 97% of production, creating geopolitical vulnerabilities LED Market Growth: Phosphor demand driving 6%+ growth in Y₂O₃ consumption Medical Applications: Y-90 radiotherapy market expanding at 8.5% CAGR Recycling Initiatives: Japan investing in phosphor recycling from LED waste New Mine Development: Australia, USA, and Namibia developing new HREE projects Technology Advances: Ion-adsorption clay processing improvements reducing costs Export Restrictions: China implementing quotas, driving prices and supply concerns Strategic Stockpiling: Japan, USA, and EU building strategic reserves
Moles per kilogram
| Product Form | Formula | MW (g/mol) | Moles/kg |
|---|---|---|---|
| Yttrium Metal | Y | 88.91 | 11.25 |
| Yttrium Oxide | Y₂O₃ | 225.81 | 4.43 |
| Yttrium Chloride (hexahydrate) | YCl₃·6H₂O | 303.36 | 3.30 |
| Yttrium Nitrate (hexahydrate) | Y(NO₃)₃·6H₂O | 383.01 | 2.61 |
| Yttrium Fluoride | YF₃ | 145.90 | 6.85 |
References
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